CHAPTER 2 - ETHICAL CONCEPTS AND ETHICAL THEORIES: ESTABLISHING AND JUSTIFYING A MORAL SYSTEM

 

 1. What is ethics, and how can it be distinguished from morality?

 

          According to the book ETHICS is derived from the Greek word ethos and the term morality came from the Latin word mores. ETHICS means or deal with what is right and what is wrong while MORALITY deals with the rightness or the goodness of the action which means different from what the word ETHICS means. But both of the Greek and Latin term refer to the notion of custom, habit behavior and character.

 

2. What is meant by a moral system? What are some of the key differences between the “rules of conduct” and the “principles of evaluation” that compromise a moral system? 

 

     According to the book particularly according to Bernard Gert (2005) Moral system is there to prevent harm and evils. It aims at promoting human flourishing. Rules of conduct are action guiding rules, in either directives or social policies that guide individual’s actions and direct us in our moral choices it also establishing social policies. While the Principles of evaluation is the evaluative standards used to justify rules of conduct. It includes principles such as utility and justice as fairness.

  

 3. What does Bernard Gert mean when he describes morality in terms of “a public system”? Why is the notion of “personal morality” an oxymoron.

  

     Because he claims that everyone must know what the rules is that define it. That's why he uses the analogy of the game which has the goal of corresponding rules.

      

   4. Why does Gert believe that morality is an “informal system”? How is a moral system both similar to, and different from a game? 

 

     Morality is an informal system because gert points out a moral system have no formal authority’s judges presiding over it. Unlike in games in professional sports that have rules enforce by referees in a manner that approaches a legal system, morality is less formal. According to him a moral system is more like a game of cards like a "pick up game" in baseball or basketball.

 

5. Describe how the ideas of “rationality” and “impartiality” function in Gert’s moral system. 

            A moral system is impartial in the sense that the moral rule are ideally deigned to apply equitably to all participants in the system. In an ideal moral system all rational people are willing to accept the rule of the system even if they do not know in advance what particular place in the system will be. To ensure that impartiality will be built into a moral system and that’s its members will be treated as fairly as possible.

   

6. What are values and what are some key differences between moral values and non moral values?

            Values word came from the Latin “valere” which means having worth or being of worth. Values are objects of our desires or interest; examples include happiness, love and freedom.Moral values are derived from non moral values by using the notion of impartiality. While Non moral values are originated from desires and typically involves rational self interest.

 

7. How do religion, law, and philosophy each provide different grounds for justifying a moral principle?

            In religion they justify the moral principle based from what is right and wrong in the eyes of the divine; obedience in the divine authority. In law it justifies the principles of moral from or based from the legal system. And lastly in philosophy it justifies the moral principle from or based from the ethical theory and logical arguments.

 

8. What is the method of philosophical ethics and what is “a philosophical study”? How is a philosophical study used in an analysis of moral issues? 

            Philosophical study requires a consistent methodological scheme be used to verify hypotheses and theories, and these verification schemes must satisfy criteria of rationality and impartiality. Philosophers confirm or reject the plausibility of a certain claim or thesis by testing it against the rules of logical argumentation. It also uses ethical theory in the analysis and deliberation of the issues. Method of philosophical ethics are used by different professionals such as philosophers, social scientist etc. in analyzing moral issues.

 

9. How does a philosophical study differ from a descriptive study? Why are sociological and anthropological studies of morality usually descriptive rather than normative in nature? 

            According to the book personalities like philosophers, social scientist, anthropologist and the other do have different approach as how they will use the kind of study. Meaning the method of philosophers use to analyze morals issues is normative in contrast to the descriptive method that is used by the social scientist. And so it is true enough that it depends on the people on how they view things and issue with regards to morality.

 

10. Summarize the four different kinds of “discussion stoppers” in ethical discourse that we examined.

1.     People disagree on solutions to moral issues

            Because different people often have different beliefs as to the correct answer to many moral questions, some infer that there is no hope of reaching any kind of agreement on answers to any moral question.

            It also discussed about the experts in many fields on functional issues, common agreement on some moral issues, and disagreement about principles versus disagreement about facts

2.     Who am I to judge others?

- People are often uncomfortable with the prospect of having to evaluate the moral beliefs and practices of others. We generally feel it is appropriate to describe the different moral beliefs that others have but that it is inappropriate to make judgments about the moral beliefs held by others. This is destructive because we constantly judge others in the sense that we make certain evaluations about them. And in certain cases, we should make judgments about the beliefs and actions of others. 

It also discussed about person’s making judgment versus persons being judgmental; judgments involving condemnation versus judgments involving evaluations and the topic that says if were ever required to make judgments about others.

3.     Morality is simply a private matter

-Assuming that morality is essentially personal in nature and must be simply a private matter is both confused and problematic because private morality is essentially an oxymoron or contradictory in notion.  

4.     Morality is simply a matter for individual cultures to determine

            - Assuming that morality can be best understood not so much as private or a personal matter but as something fro groups or cultures to determine. According to this view a moral system is dependent on or relative to a particular culture or group.  

 

 11. Why are these discussion stoppers problematic for the advancement of dialogue and debate about ethical issues? 

            Because this serves as an eye opener for all those who have questions in the different moral issues and ethical issues evolving in the society, And so this also serves as a guide for all to continuously analyze and come up to a better conclusion as to why a specific issues are raising and continuously become the topic of the debates.

 

12. What is moral relativism? How is it different from cultural relativism?

                  Cultural relativism is the view that all beliefs are equally valid and that truth itself is relative, depending on the situation, environment, and individual. Those who hold to cultural relativism hold that all religious, ethical, aesthetic, and political beliefs are completely relative to the individual within a cultural identity. While Moral relativism is the view that ethical standards, morality, and positions of right or wrong are culturally based and therefore subject to a person's individual choice. We can all decide what is right for ourselves. You decide what's right for you, and I'll decide what's right for me. Moral relativism says, "It's true for me, if I believe it."

 

13. What is ethical theory and what important functions do ethical theories play in the analysis of moral issues?

   Ethical theory provides guide us in our investigations and analysis in different moral issues. It provides us with general principles and structures with which we can analyze our data. It provides us with a framework for analyzing moral issues via a scheme that is internally coherent and consistent as well as comprehensive and systematic. 

 

14. What are the distinguishing features of consequence-based ethical theories?

            Some have argued that the primary goal of moral system is to produce desirable consequences or outcomes of its member. The consequences of actions and policies provide the ultimate standard against which moral decisions must be evaluated. If one must choose between two courses of action the morally correct action will be the one that produces the most desirable outcome.

 15. Describe some of the key differences between act utilitarianism and rule utilitarianism?

            Act utilitarianism is a utilitarian theory of ethics which states that the morally right action is the one which produces the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number of people. Act utilitarianism is opposed to rule utilitarianism, which states that the morally right action is the one that is in accordance with a moral rule whose general observance would create the most happiness. Act utilitarianism makes no appeals to general rules, but instead demands that the agent evaluate individual circumstances.

            Rule utilitarianism is a form of utilitarianism which states that moral actions are those which conform to the rules which lead to the greatest good, or that "the rightness or wrongness of a particular action is a function of the correctness of the rule of which it is an instance.” For rule utilitarian, the correctness of a rule is determined by the amount of good it brings about when followed. In contrast, act utilitarian, judge actions in terms of the goodness of their consequences without reference to rules of action. Another variation of rule utilitarianism stresses the greater utility of following a given rule in general, arguing that the practice of following some rule in all instances (always stopping at red lights, for example) will have better consequences overall than allowing exceptions to be made in individual instances, even if better consequences can be demonstrated in those instances.

16. Which features distinguish duty based ethical theories from alternative type of theories?

The main feature which distinguishes duty-based ethical theories is the duty that it has that no other alternative types has. "We have a duty to treat fellow humans as ends" The said theories reject the idea of morality bringing happiness or promoting consequences. Duty-based theories states that morality can only be proved by the concept of duty or the obligation that one person have for each other.

 

 17. Describe some of the main differences between act deontology and rule deontology?

            Rule deontology is a rule or principle that can be used in an objective and impartial way to determine the basis for our moral obligation; a standard or objective test which can be formulated in a principle. It can be formulated in a way that there is a correct kind of ethical theory.

Act deontology can be formulated in a way that avoids the charges. It is a logical priority to particular judgments. People act ethically according to their norms, but this is limited to particular behaviors, implying that there may be exceptions to the rule (Rallapalli, Vitell, & Barnes, 1998).

 

 18. What is meant by the expression “contract based” ethical theories?

            It is when virtue comes into being by contractual agreements between individuals. A contract-based ethical theory is a state of nature where all free to do as like. People establish formal legal code. The development of rules within the system is in each personal interest.

 

19. What features distinguish “character-based” or (“virtue-based”) ethical theories from alternative scheme of morality?

            This ethical theory ignores the special roles that consequences, duties, and social contracts play in moral systems, especially with respect to determining the appropriate standard for evaluating moral behavior. Rather, it focuses on criteria having to do with character development and their acquisition of good character traits from the kinds of habits they develop. 

 

20. How does James Moor’s “Just Consequentiality” theory incorporate aspects of utilitarian and deontological theories into one comprehensive framework?

            James Moor incorporates aspects of utilitarianism and deontological theories in two step framework. The first is Deliberate over various policies from an impartial point of view to determine whether they meet the criteria of being ethical policies. The second is Selecting the best policy from the set of just policies arrived at in the deliberation stage by ranking ethical policies in terms of benefits and harms.